Humanistic Counselling & Therapy had its formal beginnings in the late 1940s, though it drew on earlier work. Since then it has become an extremely effective approach to counselling. Although Behavioural therapies and Psychodynamic methods were available, a Humanistic approach offered clients another alternative. This type of counselling focuses on recognising human capabilities in areas such as creativity, personal growth and choice. This approach is perceived more as an artistic approach rather than scientific and is, therefore, not as well known as the other 2 types.

By the 1950s Humanistic Psychology was emerging as a school of Psychology  in reaction to both Behaviourism and Psychodynamic Theory. It is explicitly concerned with the human dimension of Psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory. It is concerned with the notions that:-

• Each person can exercise free will and hence has control over what they think and feel and how they behave
• Each person is a rational and conscious being, not dominated by unconscious, primitive instincts
• A person’s subjective view of the world is of greater importance to understanding that person than objective reality
• People seek personal growth and may suffer psychologically if they are not able to grow and change positively throughout their life

Human nature is perceived as positive, not bad or evil. It is an ideographic approach with its emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual.

James Bugental (1964) put forward 5 postulates of Humanistic Psychology:-

1. Human beings cannot be reduced to components
2. Human beings have in them a uniquely human context
3. Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people
4. Human beings have choices and responsibilities
5. Human beings are intentional; they seek meaning, value and creativity
   
   

The Humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist thought (as in the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger and Jean-PaulSartre), with questions such “What is the meaning of life?”  The thought here is that each person has to find the meaning of their own life from within, rather than from the external world. Heidegger (1927) developed phenomenolgy to examine human experience and how people should live their lives.

Humanistic Psychology is also sometimes understood within the concept of the three different forces of Psychology: Behaviourism, Psychodynamic Theory and Humanistic Psychology. Behaviourism grew out of Ivan Pavlov's work with the conditioned reflex and laid the foundations for academic Psychology in the United States, associated with the names of John B Watson and B F Skinner. This school was later called the ‘Science of Behaviour’. Abraham Maslow later gave Behaviourism the name 'the first force'. The 'second force' came out of Sigmund Freud's development of Psychoanalytic Theory, with the subsequent psychologies of Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Gustav Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein, Harry Stack Sullivan and others. These theorists focused on the depths of the human psyche, which they stressed, must be combined with those of the conscious mind in order to produce a healthy human personality. Many Humanistic psychologists have seen the Behaviourist and Psychodynamic approaches as dehumanising.

In the late 1950's psychologists concerned with advancing a more holistic vision of Psychology convened two meetings in Detroit, Michigan. These psychologists, including Maslow, Carl Rogers and Clark Moustakas, were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, Self-Actualisation, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning - in short, the understanding of what it means to be human.

These preliminary meetings eventually led to other developments, which culminated in the description of Humanistic Psychology as a recognisable ‘third force’ in Psychology (along with Behaviourism and Psychodynamic Theories). Significant developments included the launch of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology in 1961 and the formation of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) in 1963. Subsequently, graduate programmes in Humanistic Psychology at institutions of higher education grew in number and enrolment. In 1971, Humanistic Psychology as a field was recognised by the American Psychological Association (APA) and granted its own division (Division 32) within the APA. Division 32 publishes its own academic journal called The Humanistic Psychologist.

The major theorists considered to have prepared the ground for Humanistic Psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. The work of Wilhelm Reich, who postulated an essentially 'good', healthy core self, in contrast to Freud, was an early influence, specially his 'Character Analysis' (1933). Other noteworthy inspirers and leaders of the movement include Roberto Assagioli, Gordon Allport, Medard Boss, Martin Buber, R D Laing, Fritz Perls, Anthony Sutich, Erich Fromm, Kurt Goldstein, Clark Moustakas, Lewis Mumford and James Bugental.

                                                                                                             Epistemology
Humanistic Psychology usually prefers qualitative research methods over other epistemological approaches. This is part of the field's 'human science' approach to Psychology; an emphasis on the actual lived experience of persons. The Humanistic field views the usage of quantitative methods in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and unable to capture the richness of conscious experience. This is in direct contrast to Cognitive Psychology (which aims to apply the scientific method to the study of Psychology), an approach of which Humanistic Psychology has been strongly critical. Instead, the discipline stresses a phenomenological view of human experience, seeking to understand human beings and their behaviour by conducting qualitative research.

Individual Experience

William James (1890), one of the founding fathers of modern Psychology, proposed that the study of human beings should be about how they adapt to their environment and how conscious experience helps us do this. Consciousness, according to James, is a continual flow of thoughts, feelings and sensations that cannot be reduced into component parts.

The development of Humanistic Psychology in the mid-Twentieth Century took James’ ideas on consciousness further by focusing on the uniqueness of each individual’s experiences from 3 considerations:-

• Each experience is unique to each person and cannot be repeated - you can reconstruct the experience but the reconstruction will not be the same as the original experience
• To understand someone, you have to try to see things from their point of view (empathy) - not completely possible; but, the closer you get to it, the more you will be able to understand them
• Subjective feelings and perceptions are valid - which means they are valued and should be understood rather than queried
  
  

Free Will

Much is made of the Humanistic principle that people have free will - that their thoughts, feelings and behaviour are not determined by forces beyond their control, whether internal or external - ie: people can choose. (See Free Will & Determinism.) However, Humanistic psychologists and therapists usually also emphasise that people have responsibilities too and that there are consequences for failing to act responsibly. This is sometimes referred to as personal agency. Consequences can be external - as in punishment (eg: imprisonment for breaking the law) - or internal - eg: guilt and/or shame.

Personal Growth

Personal growth is a key emphasis in the Humanistic approach and both Rogers and Maslow are concerned with removing barriers to growth. On Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, having the D-needs met will enable the individual to grow. For Rogers, it is case of removing defence mechanisms and taking a positive attitude to self that frees the individual to grow.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi doesn’t at all portray himself as a Humanistic psychologist but his ‘Flow Theory’ (1991) fits with Humanistic concepts of personal growth. Flow occurs when a person becomes so involved in an activity that nothing else matters or intrudes upon consciousness. This can happen during both mental and physical activities. Gary Stein, Jay Kimiecik, Joe Daniels & Susan Jackson (1995) showed that students who experienced flow while playing sport had more concentration than students who were in bored or anxiety states. Flow experiences are said to lead to personal growth because the individual will want to improve at the activity and increase the challenges.This helps with other activities and means that you grow by setting yourself greater challenges.

Holism

Holism - summed up by “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts” - became the guiding principle of Gestalt Psychology as it was developed in the 1920s and 1930s by the likes of Wolfgang Kohler and Max Wertheimer. They argued that perceptions, problem-solving and learning could not be broken down into parts or ‘actions’ as with chemistry or physics.

The early Humanistic psychologists adopted Holism as a counter-argument to the Behaviourists (reducing behaviour to stimulus-response pairings) and the Psychodynamic theorists (reducing the mind to component parts)

Kurt Goldstein (1939) used the holistic viewpoint to develop Organismic Theory which treats the individual, in terms of both mind and body, as a unified and organised whole. Accordingly, to understand someone, you have to consider both mental and biological processes in a holistic way. An eminent neuropsychiatrist working with soldiers brain-damaged in World War I, he found that, to understand and help the soldiers, he had to understand the psychological consequences as well as the physical damage to the brain. Goldstein came to the conclusion that a person is a single entity and that what happens in any part, psychologically or physically, affects the whole.

Organismic Theory  studies one person in detail and holistically to discover the principles by which the whole person functions. It assumes that each person is motivated by one overwhelming drive: Self-Actualisation.

Counselling & Therapy

Humanistic Psychology includes several approaches to counselling and therapy. Among the earliest approaches were:-

• the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphasising the Hierarchy of Needs and motivations
• the existential psychology of Rollo May, acknowledging human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence
• the Client-Centred or Person-Centred Therapy of Carl Rogers, which is centred around the clients' capacity for self-direction and understanding of his/her own development

Other approaches to Humanistic counselling and therapy include Gestalt Therapy, Humanistic Psychotherapy, Depth Therapy, Holistic Health, encounter groups, sensitivity training, marital and family therapies, body work, and the Existential Psychotherapy of Medard Boss.

Self-help is also included in Humanistic Psychology. Sheila Ernst & Lucy Goodison (1981) describe using some of the main Humanistic approaches in self-help groups. Co-counselling, which is a purely self-help approach, is regarded as coming within Humanistic Psychology. Humanistic theory has had a strong influence on other forms of popular therapy, including Harvey Jackins' Re-evaluation Counselling.

Humanistic Psychology tends to look beyond the medical model of Psychology in order to open up a non-pathologising view of the person. This usually means the therapist downplays the pathological aspects of a person's life in favour of the healthy aspects. A key ingredient in this approach is the meeting between therapist and client and the possibilities for dialogue. The aim of much Humanistic therapy is to help the client approach a stronger and more healthy sense of self, moving towards Self-Actualisation.

When an individual is choosing a counsellor, it is extremely important that the client is aware of the approach the counsellor uses before arranging an appointment. This is because each method is different and depends on the person's needs as to which approach should be taken. The main objectives of Humanistic Psychology are to find out how individuals perceive themselves here and now and to recognise growth, self-direction and responsibilities. This method is optimistic and attempts to help individuals recognise their strengths by offering a non-judgemental, understanding experience.

• Person-Centred Counselling - see also Person-Centred Therapy
  This type of counselling allows the client to guide themselves through the episode rather than being led by the professional. This theory suggests that sessions should not be directive and the counsellor should be a source of understanding and encouragement rather than the problem solver. The Person-Centred approach allows clients to move at their own pace and to direct their own development. This means they are aware that the counsellor believes in their capability to manage problems, which encourages them to believe in their strengths, values and worth.
  
  An individual's self-concept is an important issue in this type of counselling; if someone has been brought up around negative experiences or interactions, it is likely that the person's self-concept will be damaged. With this method, it is not the counsellor's task to direct or diagnose the individual; their role is to listen, understand and accept in a non-judgemental manner, thus allowing the clients to help themselves. This is thought to be extremely beneficial in repairing a person's self-concept.
  
  The relationship created between the therapist and client is extremely important and the counsellor must adhere to specific healing characteristics in order for the outcome to be successful. The counsellor must empathise with the individual, offering honesty and, no matter how the client acts, the same positive, kind feelings must be portrayed at all times. The experience offered concentrates on the here and now and the I am concepts, which overlook the individual's past and reassures them they are responsible for the way they feel and their actions.

• Gestalt Therapy
  Unlike Person-Centred Counselling, this method is directive and concentrates on the client's thought process and feelings. The main objective of this approach is for the individual's to become more aware of themselves, taking into account their mind, body and spirit. The purpose of this is to improve the person's personal experiences and therefore creating a better quality of life.
  
  A gestalt professional constantly promotes the clients's awareness of themselves and uses experiments that are often invented by the counsellor and client. These experiments can be anything from creating patterns with objects and writing to role-playing. Promoting awareness is the main objective of Gestalt Therapy Counselling but other areas such as improving the ability to support ones emotional feelings are also important.

• Transactional Analysis Counselling - see also Transactional Analysis
  Transactional Analysis (TA) is a theory that involves an individual's growth and development. It is also a theory related to communication and child development explaining the connections to our past and how this influences decisions we make. The TA theory was developed by Eric Berne who was a psychiatrist and he recognised 3 key ego-states that are present in everyone: Parent, Adult and Child.
  
  A TA counsellor encourages individuals to analyse previous decisions they have made and understand the direction and patterns of their life for themselves. It also helps clients to trust their decisions and think/act as an individual improving the way they feel about themselves.
  
  Strictly speaking, TA is a Psychodynamic approach as Berne’s 3 ego-states are based roughly on Freud’s ‘Tripartite Mind’. However, it also considered a Humanistic approach because, like Person-Centred Counselling, it encourages clients to take responsibility for their own thoughts and behaviour in the here and now.

                                                                                                        Criticism & Debate
While Humanistic counselling & therapies have established  themselves as valid forms of treatment and Maslow’s Hierarchy has become arguably the most used psychological model outside of academia - as well as being the starting point for Spiral Dynamics - there has been much critiquing of the theoretical bases on which Humanistic Psychology is founded.

Criticism of the field has come from Isaac Prilleltensky (1992) who argues that Humanistic Psychology - inadvertently - is affirming the social and political status quo, and therefore has remained fairly silent about social change.

Further, in their review of different approaches to 'Positive Psychology', Martin Seligman & Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2000) note that the early incarnations of Humanistic Psychology lacked a cumulative empirical base and that some directions encouraged self-centeredness. However, according to mainstream Humanistic thinkers, Humanistic Psychology must not be understood to promote such ideas as narcissism, egotism, or selfishness. According to Arthur Bohart & Thomas Greening (2001), the association of humanistic discourse with narcissistic and overly optimistic worldviews is a misreading of Humanistic theory.

In their response to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, Bohart & Greening note note that, along with pieces on Self-Actualisation and individual fulfilment, Humanistic psychologists have also published papers on a wide range of social issues and topics, such as the promotion of international peace and understanding, awareness of the Holocaust, the reduction of violence, and the promotion of social welfare and justice for all.

Although Humanistic psychologists, generally speaking, show little concern for producing empirical evidence of its concepts, surprisingly perhaps it has been psychologists not normally associated with Humanistic Psychology, such as Mark Runco, who have produced evidence supporting some of the concepts - in this case, Self-Actualisation.

Humanistic Psychology has been criticised because its theories are impossible to falsify (Karl Popper, 1969) and lacks predictive power and, therefore. is not a science. The attempt of many Humanistic and Positive psychologies to explain all of human behaviour often means that these theories can actually never be proved wrong, which does not mean that they are correct. For instance the psychology of Adler could describe almost any action as a sign that an individual has overcome their feelings of inferiority or alternatively that same behaviour could be described as a failure in this respect. These theories are the scientific equivalent of saying “either it is raining or it is not”. According to Alan Chalmers (1999), a good scientific theory should be able be falsifiable and have predictive power; therefore, Humanistic Psychology is not a science.